Scoping studies
Following the Inception workshop initial scoping studies were conducted in proposed study areas in each of the 5 countries. The main purpose of the scoping studies was to flag up key issues for further exploration in the main research phase. A checklist was devised to guide scoping study activities. Research partners were asked to map the various institutions involved in water management in order to develop an 'organogram' of responsibilities/ jurisdiction (authority and financing mandates) and policies/objectives. In particular noting the interrelations between institutions (links/breaks) and mode and effectiveness of policy dissemination. The studies also aimed to examine stories at community level which bring out key characteristics of poverty-water-livelihood linkages. The major issues emerging were then juxtaposed against the policy and institutional context. The key research questions/issues, for in-depth exploration in the main research phase, are summarised in a table (pdf 14KB).
Andra Pradesh (India)
Deepa Joshi, University of Southampton
This scoping study focused in Andhra Pradesh, on two mandals which were selected in Chittoor district, one in arid drought-prone western Chittoor, which is also a tribal area and another in eastern Chittoor, which is a high rainfall area. The scoping study focused particularly on the policy context and issues of governance and institutional responsibility. In India there are five different ministries responsible for water at the central government level and this fragmentation of responsibility represents a huge challenge. It examined mechanisms in place for discussion of demands and decision-making in water management highlighting major issues of social exclusion and lack of participation by the poor in water decisions. Major disparities in access and water quality and quantity were found, particularly between land-owners and landless, between big farmers and small farmers and between members of different castes.
Despite progressive policy reforms the study shows that these often do not permeate down to lower levels. There remains no effective means to control how much groundwater a particular landowner may draw, over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation significantly impacts the quality and quantity of groundwater, which is also the largest source of drinking water supplies. An interesting dimension of the study is the differential impact of changing land use resulting from water supply development, and increased abstraction of groundwater reserves on the seasonal livelihood activities/opportunities of different members of the communities studied. Some of these problems of unsustainable use and unequal distribution of water are now being addressed through targeted pro-poor sector reform programmes under the guidelines of the Rajiv Ghandi Mission. The study suggests however that the principle of equal cash contribution from all user households is unrealistic given absolute constraints on the capacity of the poorest to pay.
In addition fieldwork will be carried out in urban slums on the
periphery of Hyderabad. Initial scoping studies found severe water
supply problems. Water collection represents a huge opportunity
cost for women in this area. An interesting research focus is the
dynamics of emerging water management committees which organise
payment for water supplies by tanker or from private sources. In
such urban areas institutional responsibilities in the planning,
implementation, management and maintenance of water delivery are
fragmented and agency roles duplicated. In the absence of legitimate
political and social authority, most poor households are unable
to demand and acquire access to adequate, reliable and safe water.
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Water and Livelihoods in Kenya
Short Summary of Draft Scoping Study
Omotto Josiah, ITDG-East Africa
This scoping study focused on an urban water and sanitation project in Mukuru Kwa Reuben in Nairobi and Magadi an area on the outskirts of Nairobi subject to seasonal pastoral migration. The policy context is one of liberalisation, however while water sector management and supply at the macro level has been handed to large private sector monopolies, small scale private sector operators have been criminalised. Kenya's PRSP recognises the importance of water supply and sanitation. Consultations at district level have highlighted the fact that access to water for human consumption, agricultural and livestock use is a major problem in rural areas. A number of institutions such as the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Ministry of Water, Ministry of Agriculture and related G.O.K parastatals (e.g. the National Irrigation Board and the National Water Conservation and Pipeline Co-operation) are involved in water supply. The scoping study notes that there is an urgent need to address the institutional set up in order to put in place effective institutional structures and processes for rural and urban poverty eradication.
PPAs conducted for the PRSP indicate a strong correlation between availability of water and poverty. Water is a critical requirement for small scale income-generating activities such as keeping small livestock, or vegetable gardens. In the urban study area of Mukuru Kwa Reuben, the population depends heavily on water vendors and communal water and sanitation facilities. There is currently little regulation and water quality, availability and price varies substantially. High incidence of water and sanitation diseases is attributed to poor water and sanitation conditions. Important foci or leverage points for the study include: connecting up the water-sanitation chain i.e. linking suppliers to entrepreneurs/operators, an interesting question is whether the urban poor can generate income from engaging in WSS activities. In Magadi on the outskirts of Nairobi the population is facing major water problems. Water collection, undertaken by women and children, takes between 4 and 8 hours (sometimes a whole day). This impacts negatively on women's productivity and livelihood opportunities and results in low consumption of water of often inferior quality with health and nutritional consequences. Water availability is also a key constraint for entrepreneurs seeking to diversify their livelihood activities. Cross-cutting issues emerging from this study include linking water and sanitation to income generating activities. Common issues surround the management and financing of water development, community and private sector roles, cost recovery and regulation of standards. Policy support at district and national levels is crucial to encourage and facilitate more sustainable water supply developments, for example land tenure insecurity is a key constraint to community investment in urban areas.
Malawi water and livelihoods research
Salima District (Malawi)
Short Summary of Draft Scoping Study
Linda Milazi, WaterAid, Malawi
This scoping study focused on the implications of adoption of demand-responsive approaches in the water sector for selected villages in Salima district. Poverty alleviation is central to government policy in Malawi, to this end it has recently adopted a multisectoral, demand-responsive approach to the implementation of rural water supplies. Malawi is engaged in a wider process of decentralisation but lack of capacity at the district level to perform new roles is a significant constraint. DRA concepts are now established in water policy guidelines but the scoping study suggests that they are generally poorly understood and only partially applied at present. Rural areas of Malawi have very little access to safe water, the main source is groundwater and the water sector is very much geared to the provision of boreholes. Historically provision has been essentially supply driven, communities are provided with little technological choice and participation in decision-making is limited to functional inputs. The study found that demand assessment techniques remain crude and interventions are often subject to technological and political bias. The new roles and responsibilities of decentralised structures are unclear and communities studied were unsure of who to approach about their water problems. Furthermore the capacity of newly decentralised structures to respond to community demands is often limited. Improving understanding of DRA concepts and building capacity at District and National levels to implement them is a key concern.
The
proposed area of research has comparatively low water coverage statistics
and a history of water interventions from many international development
agencies. It provides a useful comparison of the value of water
for productive purposes in two different areas in relation to a
range of choices in terms of service provision. These communities
have historically been dependent on the state for their water supply
under the previous policy of 'free' water for rural areas. Many
indicated willingness to contribute to the cost of a new water point.
Benefits narrated from the field included: safe, clean, tasty water;
ability to prepare and cook different foods e.g. beans; older people
able to collect their own water; reduced time/effort for collection;
reduced competition/conflict at water points; more time for agriculture
and other income generating activities e.g. bricks; livestock for
consumption and sale. Communities however were unused to being consulted
or participating in management of water sources. Furthermore they
were unaware of the relative costs of technologies other than boreholes.
Sensitising communities to their options and associated management
and financing responsibilities is a key concern if water supply
developments are to be sustainable.
Hambantota District (Sri Lanka)
Short Summary of Draft Scoping Study
Rajindra Ariyabandu, Water Resources Secretariat, Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, this scoping study focused on Hambantota. Sri Lanka is characterised by wide rainfall variation 500-2500mm with high seasonal and spatial variation, high run-off and little groundwater reserve. 96% of the national water requirement is for agriculture and responsibility for rural water supply is divided between the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Division and Project Management Committees of the irrigation sector. Each has a hierarchical structure of committees from community level to national level. In addition there are a number of local and foreign NGOs involved in supplying rural households, often bypassing the state institutional structure. The heavy involvement of donor-funded projects for rural water supply has introduced a number of poorly coordinated water supply options, many of these have been subsequently abandoned. Water has traditionally been viewed as a 'free' resource but with the collapse of traditional tank management systems, disconnect between traditional institutions and state institutions and NGO intervention in areas traditionally the responsibility of state roles and responsibilities have been blurred.
In
the (rainfed) study area the rural poor suffer due to lack of water
for both domestic and irrigation during the dry period. Availability
and accessibility of water has a strong correlation with household
income. Poorer rainfed villages consume around 15lcpd compared to
45lpcd in richer irrigated areas. Availability of transport to fetch
water is a key factor, richer households with transport were found
to travel up to 7km in search of potable water. An interesting dimension
of water-livelihood linkages is the multiple 'types' of water distinguished.
The scoping study suggests some households use up to eleven different
sources of water in the dry season, at considerable opportunity
cost. Water is a key constraint on food security in the study area.
Traditional reservoirs designed to store water for irrigation during
the dry season have mostly fallen into disrepair limiting cultivation
to a single season. In rainfed areas such as Hambantota rainwater
harvesting is key. The management and financing arrangements surrounding
rehabilitation and maintenance of RWH schemes is a key research
focus.
North Darfur Water and Livelihoods Research Kutum Pastoral
Short Summary of Draft Scoping Study Yousif Abaker, SC UK, Sudan
This scoping study focused on the impact of recent and ongoing changes in the water sector, at federal and state levels, on the livelihoods of pastoral communities in Darfur. In the past both construction and maintenance of water facilities was carried out exclusively by the government but since the early 1990s the government role has been diminishing and the community role, in terms of management and financing, has grown progressively. The withdrawal of government funding and resources has effectively left a vacuum which the community is expected to fill. The scoping study suggests that the community in this area is in fact highly organised and willing to participate in water management and contribute to construction and maintenance costs, either through direct payment or labour. The Rural Water Corporation is supposed to provide technical support and supply fuel and spare parts to local water management committees but currently lacks the financial capacity to fulfil this role. The respective roles and responsibilities of community and government bodies and relations between the two following changes in policy is a key area of concern.
The
site selected is the pastoral area of Kutum, northern area of north
Darfur. Four types of water supply systems are found in the area,
resulting in a range of different relationships between water and
livelihoods. Interesting issues surround household consumption patterns
and the relationship between household consumption and livestock
production. Important dimensions include time-distance to source,
seasonal variation in availability, water quality especially in
Hafirs, migration patterns in search of water for grazing and certain
special uses of water e.g. for the preparation of famine foods.
In order to explore the nature of poverty-water-livelihoods linkages,
study villages have been identified both near and far from water
points and also where there is an element of choice between sources
and supply systems. Of particular interest are changes in water
use preference following improved or increased supplies and related
changes in household economy and livelihood activities. Key issues
surround community level management capacity and rules of access
and resource allocation/exclusion between and within groups (pastoral
and sedentary). In particular employment and income generating opportunities
from water revenues, tariff systems and financing of operation and
maintenance costs. The ways in which water revenues are reinvested
represents a particularly interesting research focus.
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| photos © A. Johnstone/ODI |